Professions and organizations

As the use of computers has spread throughout society, there are an increasing number of careers involving computers.

The need for computers to work well together and to be able to exchange information has spawned the need for many standards organizations, clubs and societies of both a formal and informal nature.

Degradation

Rasberry crazy ants have been known to consume the insides of electrical wiring in computers; preferring DC to AC currents. This behavior is not well understood by scientists.^[63]

See also

Information technology portal

· Computability theory

· Computer insecurity

· Computer security

· List of computer term etymologies

· List of fictional computers

· Pulse computation

· TOP500 (list of most powerful computers)

Notes

1. Jump up^ In 1946, ENIAC required an estimated 174 kW. By comparison, a modern laptop computer may use around 30 W; nearly six thousand times less. "Approximate Desktop & Notebook Power Usage". University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved 20 June 2009.

2. Jump up^ Early computers such as Colossus and ENIAC were able to process between 5 and 100 operations per second. A modern “commodity” microprocessor (as of 2007) can process billions of operations per second, and many of these operations are more complicated and useful than early computer operations. "Intel Core2 Duo Mobile Processor: Features". Intel Corporation. Retrieved 20 June 2009.

3. Jump up^ computer, n.. Oxford English Dictionary (2 ed.). Oxford University Press. 1989. Retrieved 10 April 2009.

4. Jump up^ Halacy, Daniel Stephen (1970). Charles Babbage, Father of the Computer. Crowell-Collier Press. ISBN 0-02-741370-5.

5. Jump up^ "Babbage". Online stuff. Science Museum. 2007-01-19. Retrieved 2012-08-01.

6. Jump up^ "Let's build Babbage's ultimate mechanical computer".opinion. New Scientist. 23 December 2010. Retrieved 2012-08-01.

7. ^ Jump up to:^abcd "The Modern History of Computing". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

8. Jump up^ Ray Girvan, "The revealed grace of the mechanism: computing after Babbage", Scientific Computing World, May/June 2003

9. Jump up^ Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society

10. Jump up^ "von Neumann ... firmly emphasized to me, and to others I am sure, that the fundamental conception is owing to Turing—insofar as not anticipated by Babbage, Lovelace and others." Letter by Stanley Frankel to Brian Randell, 1972, quoted in Jack Copeland (2004) The Essential Turing, p22.

11. Jump up^ Zuse, Horst. "Part 4: Konrad Zuse's Z1 and Z3 Computers". The Life and Work of Konrad Zuse. EPE Online. Archived from the original on 2008-06-01. Retrieved 2008-06-17.

12. Jump up^ Zuse, Konrad (2010) [1984], The Computer – My LifeTranslated by McKenna, Patricia and Ross, J. Andrew from:Der Computer, mein Lebenswerk (1984) (in English translated from German), Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-3-642-08151-4

13. Jump up^ "A Computer Pioneer Rediscovered, 50 Years On". The New York Times. April 20, 1994.

14. Jump up^ Zuse, Konrad (1993). Der Computer. Mein Lebenswerk.(in German) (3rd ed.). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. p. 55.ISBN 978-3-540-56292-4.

15. Jump up^ Crash! The Story of IT: Zuse at the Wayback Machine(archived March 18, 2008)

16. Jump up^ January 15, 1941 notice in the Des Moines Register.

17. Jump up^ Arthur W. Burks. The First Electronic Computer.

18. ^ Jump up to:^abcd Copeland, Jack (2006), Colossus: The Secrets of Bletchley Park's Codebreaking Computers, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 101–115, ISBN 0-19-284055-X

19. Jump up^ "Bletchley's code-cracking Colossus", BBC News, 2 February 2010, retrieved 19 October 2012

20. Jump up^ The Colossus Rebuild http://www.tnmoc.org/colossus-rebuild-story

21. Jump up^ Randell, Brian; Fensom, Harry; Milne, Frank A. (15 March 1995), "Obituary: Allen Coombs", The Independent, retrieved 18 October 2012

22. Jump up^ Fensom, Jim (8 November 2010), Harry Fensom obituary, retrieved 17 October 2012

23. Jump up^ Generations of Computers

24. Jump up^ Enticknap, Nicholas (Summer 1998), "Computing's Golden Jubilee", Resurrection (The Computer Conservation Society) (20), ISSN 0958-7403, retrieved 19 April 2008

25. Jump up^ "Early computers at Manchester University",Resurrection (The Computer Conservation Society) 1 (4), Summer 1992, ISSN 0958-7403, retrieved 7 July 2010

26. Jump up^ Early Electronic Computers (1946–51), University of Manchester, retrieved 16 November 2008

27. Jump up^ Napper, R. B. E., Introduction to the Mark 1, The University of Manchester, retrieved 4 November 2008

28. Jump up^ Computer Conservation Society, Our Computer Heritage Pilot Study: Deliveries of Ferranti Mark I and Mark I Star computers., retrieved 9 January 2010

29. Jump up^ Lavington, Simon. "A brief history of British computers: the first 25 years (1948–1973).". British Computer Society. Retrieved 10 January 2010.

30. Jump up^ Lavington, Simon (1998), A History of Manchester Computers (2 ed.), Swindon: The British Computer Society, pp. 34–35

31. Jump up^ Cooke-Yarborough, E. H. (June 1998), "Some early transistor applications in the UK", Engineering and Science Education Journal (IEE) 7 (3): 100–106,doi:10.1049/esej:19980301, ISSN 0963-7346, retrieved 7 June 2009 (subscription required)

32. Jump up^ Cooke-Yarborough, E.H. (1957). Introduction to Transistor Circuits. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd. p. 139.

33. Jump up^ Cooke-Yarborough, E.H. (June 1998). "Some early transistor applications in the UK". Engineering and Science Education Journal (London, UK: IEE) 7 (3): 100–106. doi:10.1049/esej:19980301. ISSN 0963-7346. Retrieved 2009-06-07.

34. Jump up^ "The Hapless Tale of Geoffrey Dummer", (n.d.), (HTML),Electronic Product News, accessed 8 July 2008.

35. Jump up^ Kilby, Jack (2000), Nobel lecture, Stockholm: Nobel Foundation, retrieved 2008-05-15

36. Jump up^ The Chip that Jack Built, (c. 2008), (HTML), Texas Instruments, Retrieved 29 May 2008.

37. Jump up^ Winston, Brian (1998). Media Technology and Society: A History : From the Telegraph to the Internet. Routledge. p. 221. ISBN 978-0-415-14230-4.

38. Jump up^ Robert Noyce's Unitary circuit, US patent 2981877, "Semiconductor device-and-lead structure", issued 1961-04-25, assigned to Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation

39. Jump up^ Intel_4004 (November 1971), Intel's First Microprocessor—the Intel 4004, Intel Corp., retrieved 2008-05-17

40. Jump up^ The Intel 4004 (1971) die was 12 mm², composed of 2300 transistors; by comparison, the Pentium Pro was 306 mm², composed of 5.5 million transistors, according toPatterson, David; Hennessy, John (1998), Computer Organization and Design, San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann, pp. 27–39, ISBN 1-55860-428-6

41. Jump up^ This program was written similarly to those for the PDP-11minicomputer and shows some typical things a computer can do. All the text after the semicolons are comments for the benefit of human readers. These have no significance to the computer and are ignored. (Digital Equipment Corporation 1972)

42. Jump up^ It is not universally true that bugs are solely due to programmer oversight. Computer hardware may fail or may itself have a fundamental problem that produces unexpected results in certain situations. For instance, thePentium FDIV bug caused some Intel microprocessors in the early 1990s to produce inaccurate results for certainfloating point division operations. This was caused by a flaw in the microprocessor design and resulted in a partial recall of the affected devices.

43. Jump up^ Taylor, Alexander L., III (16 April 1984). "The Wizard Inside the Machine". TIME. Retrieved 17 February 2007.(subscription required)

44. Jump up^ Even some later computers were commonly programmed directly in machine code. Some minicomputers like the DECPDP-8 could be programmed directly from a panel of switches. However, this method was usually used only as part of the booting process. Most modern computers boot entirely automatically by reading a boot program from somenon-volatile memory.

45. Jump up^ However, there is sometimes some form of machine language compatibility between different computers. An x86-64 compatible microprocessor like the AMD Athlon 64 is able to run most of the same programs that an Intel Core 2microprocessor can, as well as programs designed for earlier microprocessors like the Intel Pentiums and Intel 80486. This contrasts with very early commercial computers, which were often one-of-a-kind and totally incompatible with other computers.

46. Jump up^ High level languages are also often interpreted rather than compiled. Interpreted languages are translated into machine code on the fly, while running, by another program called an interpreter.

47. Jump up^ The control unit's role in interpreting instructions has varied somewhat in the past. Although the control unit is solely responsible for instruction interpretation in most modern computers, this is not always the case. Many computers include some instructions that may only be partially interpreted by the control system and partially interpreted by another device. This is especially the case with specialized computing hardware that may be partially self-contained. For example, EDVAC, one of the earliest stored-program computers, used a central control unit that only interpreted four instructions. All of the arithmetic-related instructions were passed on to its arithmetic unit and further decoded there.

48. Jump up^ Instructions often occupy more than one memory address, therefore the program counter usually increases by the number of memory locations required to store one instruction.

49. Jump up^ David J. Eck (2000). The Most Complex Machine: A Survey of Computers and Computing. A K Peters, Ltd. p. 54.ISBN 978-1-56881-128-4.

50. Jump up^ Erricos John Kontoghiorghes (2006). Handbook of Parallel Computing and Statistics. CRC Press. p. 45.ISBN 978-0-8247-4067-2.

51. Jump up^ Flash memory also may only be rewritten a limited number of times before wearing out, making it less useful for heavy random access usage. (Verma & Mielke 1988)

52. Jump up^ Donald Eadie (1968). Introduction to the Basic Computer. Prentice-Hall. p. 12.

53. Jump up^ Arpad Barna; Dan I. Porat (1976). Introduction to Microcomputers and the Microprocessors. Wiley. p. 85.ISBN 978-0-471-05051-3.

54. Jump up^ Jerry Peek; Grace Todino, John Strang (2002). Learning the UNIX Operating System: A Concise Guide for the New User. O'Reilly. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-596-00261-9.

55. Jump up^ Gillian M. Davis (2002). Noise Reduction in Speech Applications. CRC Press. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-8493-0949-6.

56. Jump up^ However, it is also very common to construct supercomputers out of many pieces of cheap commodity hardware; usually individual computers connected by networks. These so-called computer clusters can often provide supercomputer performance at a much lower cost than customized designs. While custom architectures are still used for most of the most powerful supercomputers, there has been a proliferation of cluster computers in recent years. (TOP500 2006)

57. Jump up^ Agatha C. Hughes (2000). Systems, Experts, and Computers. MIT Press. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-262-08285-3. "The experience of SAGE helped make possible the first truly large-scale commercial real-time network: the SABRE computerized airline reservations system..."

58. Jump up^ "A Brief History of the Internet". Internet Society. Retrieved 20 September 2008.

59. Jump up^ "Computer architecture: fundamentals and principles of computer design" by Joseph D. Dumas 2006. page 340.

60. Jump up^ According to the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (6th ed, 2007), the word computer dates back to the mid 17th century, when it referred to “A person who makes calculations; specifically a person employed for this in an observatory etc.”

61. Jump up^ "Definition of computer". Thefreedictionary.com. Retrieved 29 January 2012.

62. Jump up^ Most major 64-bit instruction set architectures are extensions of earlier designs. All of the architectures listed in this table, except for Alpha, existed in 32-bit forms before their 64-bit incarnations were introduced.

63. Jump up^ Andrew R Hickey (May 15, 2008). "'Crazy' Ant Invasion Frying Computer Equipment".

Компьютер

Материал из Википедии, свободной энциклопедии

"Компьютерные технологии" и "Компьютерная система" перенаправить здесь. Для компании, см. Computer Technology Limited . И другие значения, см. Computer (значения) исистему компьютера (значения) .

Компьютер

Компьютер представляет собой устройство общего назначения, который может быть запрограммирован для выполнения набор арифметических или логических операций. Так как последовательность операций может быть легко изменена, компьютер может решить более одного рода проблемы.

Традиционно, компьютер состоит из по меньшей мере одного элемента обработки, обычно центральный процессор (CPU) и иной форме памяти . Процессорный элемент выполняет арифметические и логические операции, и секвенирование и блок управления, который может изменить порядок выполнения операций на основе сохраненной информации. Периферийные устройства позволяют информация, которая будет извлечена из внешнего источника, и результат операции сохранены и восстановлены.

В Второй мировой войны , механические аналоговые компьютеры были использованы для специализированных военных приложений. За это время первые электронные цифровые были разработаны компьютеры. Первоначально они были размером с большую комнату, потребляя столько же энергии, как несколько сотен современных персональных компьютеров (ПК). ^{[ 1 ]}

Современные компьютеры на базе интегральных схем миллионы в миллиарды раз более способными, чем ранние машин, и занимают меньше места. ^{[ 2 ]} Простые компьютеры достаточно мал, чтобы поместиться в мобильных устройствах , имобильные компьютеры могут работать от небольших батарей . Персональные компьютеры в их различных формах являютсяиконы из с информационной эпохи и то, что большинство людей думают о как "компьютеров." Тем не менее, встраиваемые компьютеры , найденные во многих устройствах от MP3-плееров до истребителей и от игрушек до промышленных роботов являются наиболее многочисленными.

Содержание

[ спрятать ]

· 1 Этимология

· 2 История

o 2.1 Первый общего назначения вычислительное устройство

o 2.2 Аналоговые компьютеры

o 2.3 Современный компьютер

§ 2.3.1 Электромеханические компьютеры

§ 2.3.2 Электронный программируемый компьютер

§ 2.3.3 встроенной программой компьютер

o 2.4 Транзистор компьютеры

o 2.5 Интегральная схема

· 3 Программы

o 3.1 хранимых архитектура программы

o 3.2 Ошибки

o 3.3 Машинный код

o 3.4 Язык программирования

§ 3.4.1 языках низкого уровня

§ 3.4.2 Языки высокого уровня

o 3.5 Разработка программы

· 4 Компоненты

o 4.1 Блок управления

o 4,2 Арифметическое логическое устройство (АЛУ)

o 4.3 Память

o 4.4 Вход / выход (I / O)

o 4.5 Многозадачность

o 4.6 Мультипроцессорная

o 4.7 Сеть и Интернет

o 4.8 Компьютерная архитектура парадигмы

· 5 заблуждений

o 5.1 Обязательное технологии

· 6 Дальнейшие темы

o 6.1 Искусственный интеллект

o 6.2 Оборудование

§ 6.2.1 История вычислительной техники

§ 6.2.2 Другие темы аппаратных

o 6.3 Программное обеспечение

o 6.4 Языки

o 6.5 Профессии и организаций

· 7 Деградация

· 8 См. также

· 9 Примечания

· 10 Литература

· 11 Внешние ссылки

Этимология

Первое использование слова "компьютер" был записан в 1613 году в книге под названием "Ен Ман собранные факты" английского писателя Ричарда Braithwait я haue прочитать истинную компьютер от Times, и лучший арифметики этой euer дышал, и он reduceth dayes твои в короткий номер . Она сослалась на человека, проводившего расчеты или расчеты, и слово продолжалось в том же значении до середины 20-го века. С конца 19-го века слово стали брать на его более знакомым смысла, машина, которая выполняет вычисления. ^{[ 3 ]}

История

Основная статья: История вычислительной техники

Рудиментарные вычислительные устройства впервые появились в древности и механические средства вычислительные были изобретены в 17 веке. Первая запись об использовании слова "компьютер" также с 17-го века, применяются к человека компьютеров , людей, которые выполняли расчеты , часто, как занятость. Первые компьютерные устройства были задуманы не в 19 веке, и только появились в их современной форме в 1940 году.