CITRIC ACID BY A GYPSUM-FREE PROCESS

Introduction

Citric acid is used mainly in beverages and food and as a detergent in wash­ing agents. Almost all citric acid is produced by fungi or yeasts in fermen­tation processes followed by a purifica­tion process. The quality of the citric acid ranges from food to pharmaceuti­cal grade.

Conventional citric acid process

The conventional citric acid purifica­tion process comprises the following steps:

- Precipitation of citric acid by addition of lime

- Separation of the calcium citrate by filtration

- Resolution to citric acid by adding sulphuric acid

- Removal of gypsum, followed by waste disposal

- Purification of the citric acid solution

- Concentration and crystallization.

The disadvantages of this purification process are the use of lime for the citrate precipitation, the use of sulphu­ric acid for resolution to citric acid and the contaminated gypsum for waste disposal.

Process description

Substrate preparation

The substrate consists of the glucose or saccharose solution and salts for the microorganisms.

The sugar solution is fed into a cation exchanger and subse­quently sterilized in a continuous sterilizer,

Fermentation

The citric acid is produced batchwise in high-yield submerged fermentation by aspergillus niger.

Bubble columns are used as reactors.

Answer the questions:

1. Where is citric acid used?

2. How is almost all citric acid produced?

3. What does the substrate consist of?

TEXT 19

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SUGAR

The term sugar to most people means cane or beet sugar which is sucrose. However this is only the most common of the several sugars responsible for sweet taste of certain foods.

Sugar is called by the chemists "carbohydrates". People have known ordinary sugar from ancient times. The first sugar was produced from sugar cane.

There are only two kinds of sugar that we are primerily concerned with in sugar refining namely" sucrose" the white sugar that is used by us in food and drink and invert sugar that we find in fruits and honey.

Sucrose is easily absorbed by our digestive organs. It is a necessary part of the diet of growing children. Sucrose is widely distributed in vegetables, roots and stems of all grasses. Sucrose will turn into invert sugar very easily but it is impossible to turn invert sugar into sucrose.

Answer the questions:

1. What does the term sugar to most people mean?

2. How is sugar called by the chemists?

3. How many kinds of sugar are there?

4. What is invert sugar?

TEXT 20

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SUGARS AND NON-SUGAR SWEETENERS

Sugars are sources of energy and sweetness. But also they are used in jam-making, canning and freezing as pre­servatives. In biscuits, cakes, soft drinks and some other foods they help to provide their characteristic texture.

Besides there are some other substances which also taste sweet, Sorbitol and mannitol, which are made from glucose or sucrose, are sometimes used in diabetic foods because they are absorbed slowly. However, their energy value is as large as that of glucose. In contrast, saccharin has no che­mical or nutritional relationship to sugars and provides no energy.

Non-sugar sweeteners do not rank as foods, but they may be used as sweetening agents when it is necessary to make the amount of sugars in the diet smaller.

Answer the questions:

1. Where are sugars used as preservatives?

2. What are the other substances which taste sweet?

3. What sweetener does not provide energy?

Для спеціальності ОРГ

TEXT 16

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MANAGEMENT

Management is a process which takes place at all levels in an organization. It is not carried out only by people with "manager" in their job title. Section leaders, supervisors, chief clerks, foremen, etc. All carry out managerial functions although not all of the same type or of equal importance. A manager is concerned not only with physical processes, organization structures and tasks. He has to deal with people and must take into account their attitudes, beliefs, values and reactions. There are three levels of management in most organizations.

Strategic management (Chief Executive, Board of Directors); tacti­cal management (all types of middle management, departmental managers, functional managers such as the personnel manager, account, sales manager); operational management (foremen, supervisors, chief clerk, etc.). Management tasks can he grouped into: planning, motiva­ting, organizing, control with decision-making taking place within each.

Planning, decision-making and control are intimately related managerial processes of deciding in advance ‘what’ is to be done and ‘how’ it is to be done, ‘when’ to do it and ‘who’ is to do it. There are three levels of planning: strategic, tactical and operational.

Answer the questions:

1. What is management?

2. Who carries out managerial functions?

3. What kinds of management do you know?

TEXT 17

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HOW TO WIN A MARKET

In business and industrial marketing, there are three compelling things: price, function and source.

Price: a substantially lower price can be a compelling offer. But the product must always satisfy the function.

Function: the product must always perform the function for which it is intended and meet quality standards. However, in a world of rapid technologi­cal development customers are always looking for new products that do the job better, faster, more efficiently. This presents a good opportunity to enter­prises that can offer new products based on advanced science and technologies.

Source: a company's reputation for quality and reliability of delivery are increasingly important.

Purchasing people are primarily interested in price. Engineers are prima­rily interested in function. Management is interested in source. Marketing communications therefore, must be on three levels: our prices are competi­tive, our products are good or superior, our company is dependable. Each message must be targeted for the right audience and efficiently delivered through the right channel. The extensive use of advertising builds in the minds of consumers the company's image for quality. In a market of many choices the communication must be as competitive as the product itself.

Answer the questions:

1. What are the three compelling things?

2. For what products are customers always looking to?

3. What must be marketing communications?

TEXT 18

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CONTRACT AND ITS FEATURES

By law contracts are made by trade organizations in writing.

When striking a deal standard contracts are widely used. Standard contracts are not a must. Some articles may be altered and supplemented.

Here are some of the items, which are part and parcel of any contract: legal title of the contracting parties, subject of the contract, quality, price, delivery and payment terms.

Subject names the product for sale or purchase. It also indicates the unit of measure generally employed in foreign trade. The quality of machines and equipment is to be in conformity with the technical specification of the con­tract.

The quality of raw materials and foodstuff is determined, as a rule, by stan­dards, by sample, by description. The price stated in a contract may be firm, fixed or sliding.

Firm price. Firm prices are not the subject to change in the course of the fulfillment of the contract.

Fixed price. It is the price governing in the market on the day of delivery or for a given period.

Sliding prices. These prices are quoted for machinery and equipment, which require a long period of delivery.

Answer the questions:

1. How are the contracts made by law?

2. When are standard contracts used?

3. What price can be stated in a contract?

TEXT 19

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WHAT IS A MANAGER

A number of different terms are used for "manager", including "director", "administrator" and "president". The term "manager" is used more fre­quently in profit making organizations, while the others are used more widely in government and non - profit organizations such as Universities, hospitals and social work agencies. What, then, is a manager?

When used collectively the term "management" refers to those people who are responsible for making and carrying out decisions within the system.

An individual manager is a person who directly supervises people in an organization. Some basic characteristics seem to apply to managers in all types of organizations: they include hard work on a variety of activities, preference for active tasks, direct personal relationships.

Almost everything a manager does involves decisions. The reason for making a decision is that a problem exists. In decision there is always some uncer­tainty and risk.

Managing is a hard job. There is a lot to be done and relatively little time to do it.

Answer the questions:

1. Where is the term “manager” more widely used?

2. What is an individual manager?

3. Does he make decisions?

TEXT 20

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MARKETING TODAY

Marketing is a new science. It is the art of finding out what people want, then manufacturing it for them. In a market of multiple choice it is no longer sufficient to produce a product and show your customers that it satisfies one of their basic needs. You must show that it provides benefits other products fail to provide, that it can be supplied at a competitive price and above all, supplied reliably. But in this fast-changing world, competitors catch up more quickly than ever.

Preferences that customers have for this or that product work for shorter and shorter periods. Choice makes marketing work.

Companies need to be constantly engaged in product development, if they want to be successful. Coca Cola was successful with one product in one size for many years until Pepsi Cola challenged them with a bottle double the size at the same cost. Since then Coca Cola has made many changes. Today Coca Cola has many different soft drinks, wines, movie companies, television production companies, to name only a few of its holdings.

Multiple choices for the customer are the motor that drives the marketing vehicle.

Answer the questions:

1. What is marketing today?

2. Do the companies need to be constantly engaged in product development?

3. What drives the marketing vehicle?

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The Author of “Tom Sawyer”

Mark Twain (pen name of Samuel Clemens) was born in 1835 in Florida, Missouri, and spent his boyhood in the town of Hannibal, Missouri. He worked in various towns as a newspaper man and printer until in 1857 became a Mississippi riverboat pilot. After two years on the river, Twain went to Nevada to seek his fortune. In 1865, the humorous stories that made him famous began appearing. After travelling widely, he settled down in Hartford, Connecticut. There he wrote the books which made his name known throughout the world -"The Adventures of Tom Sawyer". The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, ”The Prince and the Pauper”, "Life on the Mississippi", and many others. He died in 1910.

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ACADEMICIAN I.V. KURCHATOV

The death of I. V. Kurchatov on February 7, I960 was a great loss to physics. As the director of the Atomic Energy Institute of the Academy of Sciences and an outstanding leader in atomic energy research, he played a leading part in the development of atomic energy in Russia. He received many honors from the Soviet Government for his work. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences and a deputy to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

I. V. Kurchatov was born in 1903 in Eastern Russia. In 1923 he graduated from the University of the Crimea and started research at the Leningrad Physical Technical Institute.

Kurchatov was the first to work out the mathematical theory of ferro-electricity. He summarized his investigations in a book published in 1933. In that same year he began to work in nuclear physics.

In 1938 he became the director of the Nuclear Physics Institute, where he conducted many investigations on nuclear reactions excited by neutrons.

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